VOCABULARY BUILDING

Vocabulary Building

English vocabulary has a remarkable range, flexibility and adaptability. There are many words you don’t need at all and there are other words that you simply need to understand when you read or hear them. Finally there are words which you need to be able to use yourself. So you need to spend most time learning this last group.

What does knowing a new word mean?

·         It is not just enough to know the meaning of a word. You also need to know :

a.    What words it is usually associated with

b.    Whether it has particular grammatical characteristics

c.    How it is pronounced

·         Try to learn new words not in isolation but in phrases

·         Note any grammatical characteristics of the words you are studying. For example note when a verb is irregular and when a noun is uncountable or is only used in the plural.

·         Make a note of any special pronunciation problems with the words you are learning.

What should you do when you come across a new word?

When you are reading something in English, don’t look up every new word or expression or you will soon get fed up. Only look up something that is really important for understanding the text. When you have finished reading, look back at what you have read and then perhaps look up some extra words and write down new expressions that interests you. Similarly when you listen to English don’t panic when you hear some new words or expressions that you don’t know. Keep listening and the over all meaning will often become clear.

When you read or listen to English sometimes it is possible to guess a meaning of a word you don’t know before you look up or ask its meaning. Decide first what part of speech the word is and then look for clues in its context or form.

Making the new words active

One of the greatest advantages of revising vocabulary is that it should help you to make the step from having something in your passive vocabulary to having it in your active vocabulary.

Encourage this process by:

·         Writing the words and expressions you are trying to learn in a sentence relating to your life and interests at the moment.

·         Making a point of using the new words and expressions n your next class or home work.

·         Watching out for the words and expressions you are trying to learn in your general reading of English. If you come across any of them in use write them down in their context in your note book.

·         Writing a paragraph or story linking the words and expressions you want to learn.

SYNONYMS

A synonym is a word that has a similar meaning to another word. A synonym is a word or expression accepted as a figurative or symbolic substitute for another word or expression.

Here are few list of synonyms:

pacify	mollify, conciliate, appease, placate
Pain	ache, pang, smart, stitch, throe, twinge
palliate	extenuate, gloss, gloze, whitewash
pamper	indulge, humor, spoil, coddle, mellycoddle, babe
paragon	nonsuch, nonpareil
partner	colleague, ally, confederate
passion	fervor, fire, zeal, ardor
pathetic	pitiful, pitiable, piteous, lamentable
patience	long-suffering, resignation, forbearance
pause	intermission, recess, respite, suspension
pedantic	academic, bookish, donnish, scholastic
penitence	compunction, contrition, remorse, repentance

Antonyms

Antonyms are word pairs that are opposite in meaning, such as hot and cold, fat and thin, and up and down. GRE has antonyms in its verbal section and these antonym questions are the most straightforward vocabulary questions on the test.

Here are some Quick Tips for handling Antonyms:

1.    In most Antonym questions, the best answer isn’t a perfect antonym. The test-makers can’t resist hiding the ball from you; so don’t expect to find an exact opposite among the answer choices.

2.    If you encounter an unfamiliar word, don’t give-up; as yourself whether the word resembles a familiar one in any way. Perhaps the two words have the same root. If so, the two words are likely to have related meanings.

3.    Try working backwards - from an answer choice to the capitalized word - to help gain insight if you’re stuck. Try to think of a single word (not a phrase) that expresses the opposite of the answer choice. Ask yourself whether your antonym for the answer choice is a good synonym for the headword? If not, you can eliminate the answer choice.

4.    If an answer choice stumps you, resort to intuition by asking yourself two questions:

  Can you express the opposite idea using only one word (as opposed to a phrase)? If not, the answer is probably wrong.

  Can you imagine hearing the headword used in connection with the answer choice’s antonyms? If not, go with your hunch an eliminate that answer choice.

5.    If you’re stuck, try converting a word to another part of speech. Many words are difficult to deal with simply because their part of speech (noun, verb, or adjective) is not commonly used. Turning the word into a more familiar form can help.

6.    Resolve close judgment calls in favor of the more specific antonym. This is another one of the test-makers’ common ploys, and it is sometimes the key to distinguishing a best response from a second-best one. Always be on the lookout for this ploy!

Here is an example of the antonym questions in GRE

ITINERANT:

                                Motionless

                                Flexible

                                Straight

                                Completely

                                Sensitive

Quick Tip:

If you encounter an unfamiliar word, try to think of a familiar one that contains the same root.

Analysis

You might be familiar with the noun itinerary, which refers to a route or schedule of places to visit. The adjective itinerant describes a person who travels from place to place, especially on a regular route or circuit. The word motionless is a good antonym. Thus the first answer choice is the best response.

The second answer choice: Is flexible a good antonym of itinerant? No; a flexible person, who has the ability to bend to compromise, or to adapt to change. These characteristics have little to do with traveling (or not traveling) in a route from place to place.

The third answer choice: Is straight a good antonym of itinerant? No; the word straight has nothing to do with the concept of motion from one place to another.

The fourth answer choice: Is the phrase completely satisfied a good antonym of itinerant? No: although an itinerant person might appear discontent, or unsatisfied, with remaining in one place, this has nothing to do with the definition of itinerant.

The fifth answer choice: Is sensitive a good antonym of itinerant? No; the word sensitive has nothing to do with the concept of motion from one place to another.

Here is a list of few antonyms:

1.  Abeyance                      -              continuance

2.    Abjure                          -              espouse

3.    Abjure                          -              pledge

4.    Abrogate                     -              institute

5.    Abrogate                     -              enact

6.    Abstemious                                -              self-indulgent

7.    Abstruse                      -              obvious

8.    acarpous                      -              fecund

9.    Accolade                      -              disapprobation

10.  Acerbity                       -              sweetness

11.  acquiescence             -              rebellion

12.  Acquit                           -              convict

13. Acrimonious                -              harmonious

14. Adhere                          -              detach

WORD ROOTS

COMMON ROOT WORDS AND WORD ORIGINS

Many words in English are formed from a set of Latin roots with different prefixes and suffixes. Knowing the roots of such words may help you to remember or guess their meaning when you see them in context. These words are usually fairly formal. In their formation, they can perhaps be seen as the Latinate, formal, equivalent of phrasal verbs derived from them.

Roots                          Meaning                                 Word

Alter                                    Other                                                 Alternate, alter ego

ami, amic-                            Love                                                   amiable, amicable

amphi                                    both ends or all sides                  amphibian

ann, enni                              Year                                                    anniversary, annual, biennial, perennial

Anthrop                                human, man                                   anthropology, anthropomorphic, misanthrope

aqua, aque                          Water                                                aquatic, aquarium, aqueduct

Arch                                        chief, leader, ruler                       archangel, monarch, archaic, archenemy

Arthro                                    Joint                                                   Arthirits

Aud                                         Sound                                                auditorium, audible, audiologist, audiotape

Bell                                          War                                                    belligerent, bellicose

Biblio                                      Book                                                  bibiliography, bibilophile

bio-                                         Life                                                     bibliography, bibilophile

Brev                                        Short                                                  brief, abbreviate

Cap                                         take, seize                                       capture, captivate, capacity

Carn                                        Meat                                                  Carnivorous, chili con carne

Ced                                         yield, go                                            recede, secede, proceed, intercede, concession

chrom-                                  Color                                                  chromatic, monochrome, polychrome

Cogn                                       Know                                                 recognize, cognitive, incognito

cord / chord                        Cord                                                   Harpisichord

Corp                                       Body                                                  Corpus, corpse, corporal

crac, crat                               rule, ruler                                         autocrat, democracy, bureaucrat, democracy

Cred                                       Believe                                              credible, credulous, credibility, credit, credo

Cruc                                        Cross                                                  Crucifix, crucial

Crusta                                    Shell                                                   Crustacean

Crypt                                      Hidden                                              cryptogram, crptology, cryptic

Culp                                        Guilt                                                   culpable, culprit

Dei                                          God                                                    deity, deify

demo                                     People                                              demography, democracy, epidemic

Dent                                       Tooth                                                 dentist, dentifrice, dentin

Derm                                      Skin                                                    dermatology, epidermis, hypodermic

Suffixes

In English, new words can be formed by using suffixes and prefixes. A suffix is attached at the end of a root word to form a new word (care+less = careless) while a prefix is attached at the beginning of a root word to form a new word (un+usual!=unusual).

Suffix	Verbs	Nouns
-ment	appoint, arrange, agree, amend, allot, amuse, amaze, conceal, commit, judge, move, appease, argue, announce	appointment, arrangement, agreement, concealment, commitment, judgement, movement, appeasement, argument, announcement
-ion, / -tion	act, attract, add, adopt, abdicate, affect, associate, create, combine, connect, select, reject, cultivate, elect, expect, invent, dictate, reveal, collect, narrate, converse	action, attraction, addition, adoption, abdication, affection, association, creation, combination, connection, selection, rejection, cultivation, election, expectation, invention, dictation, revelation, collection, narration, conversation.
-ance	abound, assist, attend, assure, insure, defy, rely.	abundance, assistance, attendance, assurance, insurance, defiance, reliance.
-al -sion	arrive, approve, betray, deny, dismiss, admit, compel, decide, extend, divide, expel	arrival, approval, betrayal, denial, dismissal, admission, compulsion, decision, extension, division, expulsion.
-ing	learn, earn, burn, bless, build, beat	learning, earning, burning, blessing, building, beating.
-ure	fail, furnish	failure, furniture

IDIOMS

Ø  An idiom is an expression or phrase, often informal and having a meaning of its own which is not apparent from the meaning of its individual words. For example round the bend is an idiom meaning mad.

Some Common Idioms

In the following questions, four alternatives are given for the idiom/phrase italicized in the sentence. Choose the one that best expresses the meaning of the underlined idiom/phrase in the sentence:

1. The cricket match proved to be a big draw.

      a game without any result

2. Pt.  Nehru was born with a silver spoon in his mouth.

       born in a wealthy family

3. In the armed forces, it is considered a great privilege to die in harness.

      die on the battle field                

4. The thief took to his heels when he saw a policeman.

      ran away from the scene

5. To draw the line

 To set his limits

ANALOGY

An analogy is a comparison between two different things in order to highlight some point of similarity. As Freud suggested, an analogy won’t settle an argument, but a good one may help to clarify the issues. In this type of question, students are presented with a pair of words followed by four or five additional pairs of words. They must select from among the choices that which best matches the relationship existing between the first pair. In handling this type of questions, it is necessary to determine the exact nature of relationship existing between the given words.

Analogies in the Verbal Section of the Graduate Record Exam, or GRE look like this. In this type of analogy problem, the relationship between one set of items is given, and the test taker must choose an analogous set from five choices. Here is an example.

COW: CALF

A) Ewe: kid

B) Mare: foal

C) Hen: rooster

D) Ram: lamb

E) Sow: pig

Here are some relationships that form the basis of many analogies: 

 Nature of the Relationship       Sample Analogy 

synonym                                  happy : joyous :: irritated : cranky
antonym                                  day : night :: in : out 
worker and tool used               gardener : hoe :: carpenter : saw 
tool and object it’s used upon   hammer : nail :: scissors : cloth
function of a tool                       safety pin : fasten :: pencil : write 
creator and work created          writer : novel :: composer : symphony 
part to whole                            petal : flower :: pocket : jacket 
masculine and feminine              actor : actress :: bull : cow 
symbol and what it stands for    heart : love :: flag : nation 
category and instance                cat : Persian :: automobile : convertible 
cause and effect germ :             disease :: fertilizer : growth 
effect and cause                        tidal wave : earthquake :: mudslide : excessive rain

Here are some Quick Tips for tackling Analogies.

1. Create a sentence that includes the two capitalized words. Ideally, the sentence should reveal the essence of the relationship between the two words, and should not be so specific that none of the answer choices will fit, or so general that several fit. Here are two examples of the types of sentences that might zero in on the correct choice:

  One possible function of a [first word] is to [second word]

  [First word] is a condition that is necessary in order for [second word] to occur.

2.    Eliminate any answer choice in which the two words are unrelated to each other. Typically, at least one answer choice will fit this description. You can eliminate all such choices without even considering the original pair!

3.    If you know only one of the two words in an answer choice, you can always take an educated guess, even with just one of the words. You can often eliminate an answer choice by knowing just one of the two words.

4.    If one of the original words has either a negative or positive connotation, the corresponding word in the correct answer choice will be similarly “charged.” But if the original word is neutral, the corresponding word in the correct answer choice is must be neutral as well.

5.    You can often guess the meaning of unfamiliar words. Any of the following might provide a clue about what a word means:

  another word that resembles the word in any way

  the word’s root of prefix

  The meaning of the other word in the pair

Sample Question:

PRESERVE: MORATORIUM

Tyrannize:   revolt

Shade:          tree

Solve:            problem

Accumulate: collection

Cover:           eclipse

Quick Tip:

     One type of relationship frequently appearing among Analogy word pairs is that of function, or use. In this type of relationship, one word is essentially a tool, while the other is a function, purpose, or use of that tool.

Analysis:

A moratorium is an official halt or cessation of an activity. One possible, or use, of a moratorium is to preserve (for instance, to preserve an endangered animal species). Similarly, one possible use of a tree is to shade. The second answer choice is the best response.

The first answer choice: Is one possible use of a revolt to tyrannize? No. The purpose of a revolt might be to stop tyranny (which means “oppressive rule”).

The third answer choice: Is one possible use of a problem to solve? No.

The fourth answer choice: Is one possible use of a collection to accumulate? No. The relationship between these two words is just the opposite: One possible purpose of accumulating is to form a collection.

The fifth answer choice: Is one possible use of an eclipse to cover? No. Covering is part of the definition of eclipse.

PHRASAL VERBS

A phrasal verb is a combination of a verb and a preposition, a verb and an adverb, or a verb with both an adverb and a preposition, any of which are part of the syntax of the sentence, and so is a complete semantic unit. Sentences, however, may contain direct and indirect objects in addition to the phrasal verb.

ASK FOR

 to deserve a negative consequence

BREAK DOWN

 to lose control of one's emotions

 to stop functioning

BREAK IN

 to forcibly enter a building

 to work or repeatedly use something so that it becomes comfortable or easily usable

BREAK INTO

 to forcibly enter

Mary broke into the car to steal the stereo.

BREAK UP

 to cause to disperse or scatter

BRING ABOUT

 to make happen

GET ALONG

 to advance (especially in years)

 have a congenial relationship with someone

 to manage or fare reasonably

GET AWAY

 to escape

 LOOK DOWN ON

 to consider inferior

LOOK UP

 to find information in a book, or book like source

PUT UP WITH

 to tolerate

RUN AWAY

 to escape from one's guardians

RUN INTO

 to meet unexpectedly

RUN OVER

 to hit with a vehicle

                      ONE WORD SUBSTITUTES

A one word substitute is a word that is used instead of a whole phrase. They are intended to add more meaning to the language. They are not only useful to enhance one’s vocabulary but also spoken and writing skills.

The vocabulary section of the examination also covers questions in which a phrase or a group of words is given and the candidate is required to find one word that conveys the same meaning as the phrase or group of words.

The following are a few one word substitutes:

Egoist (also Egotist): a person who is selfish, self absorbed and self centered

Epitaph: inscription on a tombstone

Fatalist: one who believes in the philosophical doctrine of fatalism

Aristocracy: people of noble families or the highest social class. Also, government of a country by a small group of people, especially hereditary nobility

Atheist: a person who does not believe in God or deities

Ambiguity: an expression or statement that has more than one meaning

Cannibal: somebody who eats human flesh

Mercenary: somebody who works or serves only for personal profit. Also, a professional soldier paid to fight for an army other than that of his or her country

Misogynist: a person who hates women

Misogamist: a person who does not believe in the institution of marriage

Soporific: a drug or other substance that induces sleep

Omniscient: a person who knows everything

Omnivorous: an animal or a human being that eats any kind of food

Omnipotent: a person who has power over all

Panacea: a supposed cure for all diseases or problems

Parasite: a person supported by another and giving him/her nothing in return

Impervious: a person who remains unmoved and unaffected by other people's opinions, arguments or suggestions

Infallible: incapable of making a mistake

Infanticide: the killing of an infant

Honorary: holding an office awarded as an honour and receiving no payment for services provided in that office

Idolatry: the worship of idols or false gods

Inflammable: something that is quickly and easily set on fire and burned

  STUDY OF THE ORIGIN OF WORDS

Etymology is the study of the roots and the history of words; and how their from and meaning have changed over time.

What follows is list of some curious word origins. Some of these are English, but some are French and German words from which we get some English words.

Addict

Slaves given to Roman soldiers to reward them for performance in battle were known as addicts. Eventually, a person who was a slave to anything became known as an addict.

Algebra

This term, which means "the science of equations" in English--and which conjures up fear in the hearts of most fifth and sixth graders--comes from the title of one of al-Khowarizmi's (see "algorithm") treatises, "Hisab AL-JAHR w'almuqaBAlah" [emphasis added], which means, "Science of Transposition and Cancellation.

Assassin

From the old Arabic word "hashshshin," which meant, "someone who is addicted to hash," that is, marijuana. Originally refered to a group of warriors who would smoke up before battle.

 Biscuit 

  From the mediaeval French 'Bis + cuit' meaning 'cooked twice'

 Cab (as in, Taxicab)

Old Italian term for goat (cabra in Spanish). The first carriages "for public hire" bounced so much that they reminded people of goats romping on a hillside

Calculate

Comes from calculus, the Latin word for pebble. In Ancient Rome, as in Ancient Greece, pebbles were used in the abacus or counting frame in order to carry out basic arithmetic computations. 

 Cell

Originally meant a monk's living space. It was Robert Hooke, who invented the first microscope. His first specimen was a piece of cork, which was made up of many small rectangular sub-parts. To him, the small rectangles were like the small room monks lived in, known as cells. Thus, he called these discovered & so the Turks had to give up and leave someone who "turns his tail and runs."

Deer

From the Old English "deor," meaning "animal."

  Denim

The tough cloth used in jeans was originally made in Nimes, France, as well as Genoa, Italy (see jeans). It was called Serge di Nimes--later shortened to di Nimes, which became denim.

Dexterity

From the Latin "dexter," for "right" (in the sense of right-left).

Elite

From the Latin elire, meaning "to choose," from which we also get the modern Spanish word meaning the same, elegir.

Jeans

Genoa--called "Gene" by sixteenth-century Europeans--was the first city to make denim cloth (see Denim) used for jeans. The pants were named after the city.

Mastress

From the French "Maîtresse," which originally meant "bride."

Money

From the Latin word "moneta" which originally meaning, "warning."

Business Vocabulary

Business Vocabulary is vocabulary especially related to international trade. It is a part of Business English and can be considered within English. Students study the business vocabulary with the goal of doing business with English-speaking countries, or with companies located outside India. Much of the English communication that takes place within business circles all over the world occurs between people. In cases such as these, the object of the exercise is efficient and effective communication. The strict rules of grammar are in such cases sometimes ignored, when, for example, a stressed negotiator's only goal is to reach an agreement as quickly as possible. 

Business English means different things to different people. For some, it focuses on vocabulary and topics used in the worlds of business, trade, finance, and international relations. For others it refers to the communication skills used in the workplace, and focuses on the language and skills needed for typical business communication such as presentations, negotiations, meetings, small talk, socializing, correspondence, report writing, and a systematic approach. In both of these cases it can be taught to the students, for example,  students preparing to enter the job market.

For How to master vocabulary?