Learning English - Informationa Technology

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY


A Very Short History of Computer Ethics


Terrell Ward Bynum is Professor of Philosophy at Southern Connecticut State University. He has published articles and books, created conferences and workshops, given speeches and addresses. And also he developed an internationally influential web site. This article had adapted from 'From the Internet' published in the summer 2000 issue of the American Philosophical Association's Newsletter on philosophy and computing.

Norbert Wiener , a professor in the MIT was founded Computer ethics as field of study in the early 1940. At the same time he was helping to develop an anti-aircraft cannon capable of shooting down fast warplanes. Wiener created a new branch of science called cybernetics. Cybernetics is the science of information feedback systems.

The cannon he was helping to develop had two parts. One part would track the enemy warplane and ‘talk’ to the other part. This is an Engineering challenge. At that time digital computers were being created.

Norbert Wiener expressed his concern over this combination of moral consequences in his book, Cybernetics: or control and communication in the animal and machine, published in 1948. He thought that this combination of cybernetics and digital computer had the potential for good and for evil.

Norbert Wiener published his great book, The Human Use of Human Beings in 1950, in which he laid down a complete computer ethics foundation. This ethics foundation is now a powerful basis for further research and analysis in this field. Wiener made it clear that, in his opinion, the integration of computer technology into society would constitute its remarking - the second industrial revolution – destined to affect every major aspect of life. The computer revolution would be a multi-faceted, ongoing process that would take decades of effort and would radically change everything. Such a vast undertaking would necessarily include a wide diversity of tasks and challenges for workers, governments, professional organizations, sociologists, psychologists and philosophers to deal with.

Computer ethics is a complex and important new area of applied ethics, which Wiener founded in the 1940s. It was remained undeveloped and unexplored until the mid 1960s. By then the good and bad consequences of computer technology became manifest everywhere. However, credit goes to Norbert Wiener for conceiving the applied ethics. These ethics would soon be taken up by other scientists and turned into a universal code of conduct.

Also in the mid 1960s, computer-enabled invasions of privacy by ‘big-brother’ government agencies became a public worry and led to books, articles, government studies, and proposed privacy legislation.

By the mid 1970s, new privacy laws and computer crime laws had been enacted in America and in Europe. Organizations of computer professionals were adopting codes of conduct for their members. At the same time, MIT computer scientist Joseph Weizenbaum created a computer program called ELIZA intended to crudely stimulate a Rogerian Psychotherapist engaged in an initial interview with a patient. Weizenbaum wrote the classic book Computer Power and Human Reason (1976), in computer ethics concerned by the ethical implications.

Walter Maner had dubbed 'computer ethics' . Maner defined computer ethics as the branch of applied ethics, which studies ethical problems 'aggravated, transformed or created by computer technology'. He also offered guidelines for dealing with the subject in the classroom.

Terrell Ward Bynum developed curriculum materials and a university course 1979. In the 1980s he gave speeches and conducted workshops at a variety of conferences across America. In 1983 as editor of the journal ‘metaphilosophy’, he launched as essay competition to generate interest in computer ethics and to create a special issue of the journal. Entitled ‘Computer and Ethics’, it was published in 1985 and its lead article which won the essay competition, was James Moor’s essay, ‘What is Computer Ethics?’

The year 1985 was a watershed year for computer ethics. Deborah Johnson published her text book, Computer Ethics, in which she defines computer ethics as a field in which computers deal with new versions of standard moral problems and dilemmas. She thinks that computers did not create new ethical problems, but only gave a new twist to already familiar issues such as ownership, power, privacy and responsibility.

On the other hand, in her 1995 ETHICOMP paper, Krystyna Gorniak predicted that computer ethics, which will evolve into a system of global ethics applicable in every culture on earth. Just as the major ethical theories of Bentham and Kant were developed in response to the printing press revolution, so new ethical theory is likely to emerge from computer ethics in response to the computer revolution. The newly emerging field of information ethics, therefore, is much more important than even its founders and advocates believe.

The very nature of the computer revolution indicates that the ethic of the future will have a global character. It will be global in a spatial sense, since it will encompass the entire globe. It will also be global in the sense that is will address the totality of human actions and relations. Computers do not know borders. Computer networks have a truly global character. Hence, when we are talking about computer ethics, we are talking about the emerging global ethic.

But Johnson’s hypothesis is the opposite of Krystyna’s. The current ethical theories and principles, according to Johnson, will remain the source of ethical thinking and analysis, and as such, the computer revolution will not lead to a revolution is ethics.

Simply, Krystyna’s point of view is that the ethically revolutionary computer technology will make human beings re-examine the foundations of ethics and the very definition of human life. But Johnson’s stand is that fundamental ethical theories will remain unaffected with no change in the ethical questions. This would make applied computer ethics disappear.

Comprehension

1. What do you understand by 'cybernetics'?

Cybernetics is science of information feedback systems.

2. Why does the computer have 'another social potentiality of unheard-of importance for good and for evil?

The computer has revolutionised every aspect of our lives, given us many advantages. However, it also has the potential for evil such as computer-aided crimes, scope for invasions of privacy, etc.


3. How did Wiener think of computer technology as remaking society?

He believed that the integration of computer technology would be a second industrial revolution that would affect every major aspect of life. It would spread over a long period of time and would include new tasks and challenges.


4. How did the term 'computer ethics' catch on and why?

'Computer ethics' coined by Walter Maner in 1976. He caught on because the term suited the study of computer-related ethical issues in which there had been increasing interest since 1940s. Inspire by maner's work, Bynum developed teaching materials, conducted workshops and also launched an essay competition, the winner of which was James Moor's now-classic essay on computer ethics.

5. How is the nature of the computer revolution global and how does it affect the global ethic?

Computer revolution is global in the sense that it is spread across the world and also in that it affects all aspects of our lives including our actions and relations. All the ethical problems created, aggravated and transformed by computer technology will hence be global in nature.

6. What is your view of the future of computer ethics as derived from this lesson?

It will continue to have relevance in a world making increasing use of computer technology. It will help study and deal with ethical problems associated with computers.